Burmese music documented in Chinese textual sources
compiled by David Badagnani (rev. 28 December 2023)
In an effort to make it more accessible, this document contains resources related to Burmese musics, as documented in Chinese textual sources.
During the Tang Dynasty, the Pyu states of Upper Burma had trade and diplomatic relations with China. In 800 and 801-802, the Pyu kingdom of Sri Ksetra (in Pyay, Bago Region, south-central Burma) sent a formal embassy, along with a group of 35 musicians, to the Tang court. The poets Bai Juyi and Yuan Zhen attended the second of these performances, and both wrote poems detailing their experience.
Links to textual sources are highlighted in green.
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Historical reference works discussing Burmese musics
● Hou Han Shu《后汉书》(The Book of the Later Han)
The official history of the Eastern Han Dynasty (also called "Later Han"), covering the period from 6 to 189 AD, Hou Han Shu, which also covers the interregnum of the Xin Dynasty (新朝, 9-23), was compiled by Fan Ye (范晔, 398-445 or 446) and others in the 5th century, during the Liu Song Dynasty (420-479). It is one of the Twenty-Four Histories (二十四史).
後漢書卷八十六
南蠻西南夷列傳第七十六
永平中，益州刺史梁國朱輔，好立功名，慷慨有大略。〔一〕在州數歲，宣示漢德，威懷遠夷。自汶山以西，前世所不至，正朔所未加。白狼、槃木、唐菆等百餘國，戶百三十餘萬，口六百萬以上，舉種奉貢，稱為臣僕，輔上疏曰：「臣聞詩云：『彼徂者岐，有夷之化。』〔二〕傳曰：『岐道雖僻，而人不遠。』〔三〕詩人誦詠，以為符驗。今白狼王唐菆等慕化歸義，作詩三章。路經邛來大山零高阪，〔四〕峭危峻險，百倍岐道。〔五〕繈負老幼，若歸慈母。遠夷之語，辭意難正。草木異種，鳥獸殊類。有犍為郡掾田恭與之習狎，頗曉其言，臣輒令訊其風俗，譯其辭語。今遣從事史李陵與恭護送詣闕，并上其樂詩。昔在聖帝，舞四夷之樂；〔六〕今之所上，庶備其一。」帝嘉之，事下史官，錄其歌焉。〔七〕
〔一〕 東觀記「輔」作「酺」。梁國寧陵人也。
〔二〕 詩周頌也。
〔三〕 韓詩薛君傳曰：「徂，往也。夷，易也。行，道也。彼百姓歸文王者，皆曰岐有易道，可往歸矣。易道謂仁義之道而易行，故岐道阻險而人不難。」
〔四〕 山海經曰：「崍山，江水出焉。」郭璞曰：「中江所出也。」華陽國志曰：「邛來山本名邛莋，故邛人、莋人界也。巖阻峻回，曲折乃至。山上凝冰夏結，冬則劇寒，王陽行部至此而退者也。有長貧、苦採、八度之難。陽母、閎峻並阪名。」
〔五〕 言詩人雖歎岐道之阻，但以文王之道，人以為夷易，今邛來峭危，甚於岐。
〔六〕 解見陳禪傳。
〔七〕 東觀記載其歌，并載夷人本語，並重譯訓詁為華言，今范史所載者是也。今錄東觀夷言，以為此注也。
遠夷樂德歌詩曰：
遠夷樂德歌詩曰：
● Ling Biao Lu Yi《岭表录异》(A Record of the Unusual [Things Encountered in] the Land Beyond the Mountains)
A record of the local customs, as well as aspects of the natural world, encountered in southern China (encompassing modern-day Guangdong and Guangxi) by Liu Xun (刘恂), who served as sima (司马, commandant) of the prefecture of Guangzhou during the reign of the late Tang Emperor Zhaozong (r. 888-904); this work, which includes some discussion of traditional music, was likely written during that period or soon thereafter. Burmese music is described in the work's first section as follows:
蠻夷之樂，有銅鼓焉，形如腰鼓，而一頭有面。鼓面圓二尺許，面與身連，全用銅鑄。其身遍有蟲魚花草之狀，通體均厚，厚二分以外，爐鑄之妙，實為奇巧。擊之響亮，不下鳴鼉。貞元中，驃國進樂，有玉螺銅鼓，即知南蠻酋首之家，皆有此鼓也。咸通末，幽州張直方貶龔州刺史。到任後，修葺州城，因掘土得一銅鼓，載以歸京。到襄漢，以為無用之物，遂舍於延慶禪院，用代木魚，懸於齋室。今見存焉。僖宗朝，鄭絪鎮番禺日，有林藹者，為高州太守。有鄉墅小兒，因牧牛聞田中有蛤鳴，牧童遂捕之。蛤躍入一穴，遂掘之深大，即蠻酋塚也。蛤乃無蹤，穴中得一銅鼓，其色翠綠，土蝕數處損闕，其上隱起，多鑄蛙黽之狀。疑其鳴蛤即鼓精也。遂狀其緣由，納於廣帥，懸於武庫，今尚存焉。
● Xin Tang Shu《新唐书》 (The New Book of Tang; generally translated as "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History")
This historical work covering the Tang Dynasty, comprising ten volumes and 225 volumes, was compiled by compiled by a team of scholars led by Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi, a process that took 17 years. It was completed in 1060, during the Northern Song Dynasty. It is one of the Twenty-Four Histories (二十四史). Burmese music is discussed in volumes 22 and 222:
Volume 22
禮樂十二
貞元中，南詔異牟尋遣使詣劍南西川節度使韋皐，言欲獻夷中歌曲，且令驃國進樂。皐乃作南詔奉聖樂，用黃鍾之均，舞六成，工六十四人，贊引二人，序曲二十八疊，執羽而舞「南詔奉聖樂」字，曲將終，雷鼓作於四隅，舞者皆拜，金聲作而起，執羽稽首，以象朝覲。每拜跪，節以鉦鼓。又為五均：一曰黃鍾，宮之宮；二曰太蔟，商之宮；三曰姑洗，角之宮；四曰林鍾，徵之宮；五曰南呂，羽之宮。其文義繁雜，不足復紀。德宗閱於麟德殿，以授太常工人，自是殿庭宴則立奏，宮中則坐奏。
十七年，驃國王雍羌遣弟悉利移、城王舒難陀獻其國樂，至成都，韋皐復譜次其聲，又圖其舞容、樂器以獻。凡工器二十有二，其音八：金、貝、絲、竹、匏、革、牙、角，大抵皆夷狄之器，其聲曲不隸於有司，故無足采云。
卷二百二十二下
Volume 222
列傳第一百四十七下
列傳第一百四十七下
貞元中，王雍羌聞南詔歸唐，有內附心，異牟尋遣使楊加明詣劍南西川節度使韋皐請獻夷中歌曲，且令驃國進樂人。於是皐作南詔奉聖樂，用正律黃鍾之均。宮、徵一變，象西南順也；角、羽終變，象戎夷革心也。舞六成，工六十四人，贊引二人，序曲二十八疊，舞「南詔奉聖樂」字。舞人十六，執羽翟，以四為列。舞「南」字，歌聖主無為化；舞「詔」字，歌南詔朝天樂；舞「奉」字，歌海宇脩文化；舞「聖」字，歌雨露覃無外；舞「樂」子，歌闢土丁零塞。皆一章三疊而成。
[ . . . ]
[ . . . ]
雍羌亦遣弟悉利移城主舒難陀獻其國樂，至成都，韋皐復譜次其聲。以其舞容、樂器異常，乃圖畫以獻。工器二十有二，其音八：金、貝、絲、竹、匏、革、牙、角。金二、貝一、絲七、竹二、匏二、革二、牙一、角二。鈴鈸四，制如龜茲部，周圓三寸，貫以韋，擊磕應節。鐵板二，長三寸五分，博二寸五分，面平，背有柄，係以韋，與鈴鈸皆飾絛紛，以花〈疊毛〉縷為橤。螺貝四，大者可受一升，飾絛紛。有鳳首箜篌二：其一長二尺，腹廣七寸，鳳首及項長二尺五寸，面飾虺皮，絃一十有四，項有軫，鳳首外向；其一頂有條，軫有鼉首。箏二：其一形如鼉，長四尺，有四足，虛腹，以鼉皮飾背，面及仰肩如琴，廣七寸，腹闊八寸，尾長尺餘，卷上虛中，施關以張九絃，左右一十八柱；其一面飾彩花，傅以虺皮為別。有龍首琵琶一，如龜茲製，而項長二尺六寸餘，腹廣六寸，二龍相向為首；有軫柱各三，絃隨其數，兩軫在項，一在頸，其覆形如師子。有雲頭琵琶一，形如前，面飾虺皮，四面有牙釘，以雲為首，軫上有花象品字，三絃，覆手皆飾虺皮，刻捍撥為舞崑崙狀而彩飾之。有大匏琴二，覆以半匏，皆彩畫之，上加銅甌。以竹為琴，作虺文橫其上，長三尺餘，頭曲如拱，長二寸，以絛繫腹，穿甌及匏本，可受二升。大絃應太蔟，次絃應姑洗。有獨絃匏琴，以班竹為之，不加飾，刻木為虺首；張絃無軫，以絃繫頂，有四柱如龜茲琵琶，絃應太蔟。有小匏琴二，形如大匏琴，長二尺；大絃應南呂，次應應鍾。有橫笛二：一長尺餘，取其合律，去節無爪，以蠟實首，上加師子頭，以牙為之，穴六以應黃鍾商，備五音七聲；又一，管唯加象首，律度與荀勗笛譜同，又與清商部鍾聲合。有兩頭笛二，長二尺八寸，中隔一節，節左右開衝氣穴，兩端皆分洞體為笛量。左端應太蔟，管末三穴：一姑洗，二蕤賔，三夷則。右端應林鍾，管末三穴：一南呂，二應鍾，三大呂。下托指一穴，應清太蔟。兩洞體七穴，共備黃鍾、林鍾兩均。有大匏笙二，皆十六管，左右各八，形如鳳翼，大管長四尺八寸五分，餘管參差相次，製如笙管，形亦類鳳翼，竹為簧，穿匏達本。上古八音，皆以木漆代之，用金為簧，無匏音，唯驃國得古製。又有小匏笙二，製如大笙，律應林鍾商。有三面鼓二，形如酒缸，高二尺，首廣下銳，上博七寸，底博四寸，腹廣不過首，冒以虺皮，束三為一，碧絛約之，下當地則不冒，四面畫驃國工伎執笙鼓以為飾。有小鼓四，製如腰鼓，長五寸，首廣三寸五分，冒以虺皮，牙釘彩飾，無柄，搖之為樂節，引贊者皆執之。有牙笙，穿匏達本，漆之，上植二象牙代管，雙簧皆應姑洗。有三角笙，亦穿匏達本，漆之，上植三牛角，一簧應姑洗，餘應南呂，角銳在下，穿匏達本，柄觜皆直。有兩角笙，亦穿匏達本，上植二牛角，簧應姑洗，匏以彩飾。
凡曲名十有二：一曰佛印，驃云沒馱彌，國人及天竺歌以事王也。二曰讚娑羅花，驃云嚨莽第，國人以花為衣服，能淨其身也。三曰白鴿，驃云荅都，美其飛止遂情也。四曰白鶴游，驃云蘇謾底哩，謂翔則摩空，行則徐步也。五曰鬬羊勝，驃云來乃。昔有人見二羊鬬海岸，彊者則見，弱者入山，時人謂之「來乃」。來乃者，勝勢也。六曰龍首獨琴，驃云彌思彌，此一絃而五音備，象王一德以畜萬邦也。七曰禪定，驃云掣覽詩，謂離俗寂靜也。七曲唱舞，皆律應黃鍾商。八曰甘蔗王，驃云遏思略，謂佛教民如蔗之甘，皆悅其味也。九曰孔雀王，驃云桃臺，謂毛采光華也。十曰野鵝，謂飛止必雙，徒侶畢會也。十一曰宴樂，驃云〈口籠〉聦網摩，謂時康宴會嘉也。十二曰滌煩，亦曰笙舞，驃云扈那，謂時滌煩暋，以此適情也。五曲律應黃鍾兩均：一黃鍾商伊越調，一林鍾商小植調。樂工皆崑崙，衣絳〈疊毛〉，朝霞為蔽膝，謂之祴〈滿，氵改礻〉。兩肩加朝霞，絡腋。足臂有金寶鐶釧。冠金冠，左右珥璫，絛貫花鬘，珥雙簪，散以毳。初奏樂，有贊者一人先導樂意，其舞容隨曲。用人或二、或六、或四、或八、至十，皆珠冒，拜首稽首以終節。其樂五譯而至，德宗授舒難陀太僕卿，遣還。開州刺史唐次述驃國獻樂頌以獻。大和六年，南詔掠其民三千，徙之柘東。
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Chinese poems mentioning Burmese musics
《新乐府 骠国乐－欲王化之先迩后远也》
New Yuefu [Poem]: The Music of Pyu, The Desire of the King's Diplomacy to be First Close and Later Distant (Xin Yuefu: Piaoguo Yue)
作者：白居易（唐）
by Bai Juyi (Tang Dynasty, 772-846)
New Yuefu [Poem]: The Music of Pyu, The Desire of the King's Diplomacy to be First Close and Later Distant (Xin Yuefu: Piaoguo Yue)
作者：白居易（唐）
by Bai Juyi (Tang Dynasty, 772-846)
translated by Jordan Alexander Gwyther
Preface:
贞元十七年来献之
During the seventeenth year of the Zhenyuan reign [i.e., 801-802] they came in tribute.
Poem:
骠国乐，骠国乐，出自大海西南角。
Poem:
骠国乐，骠国乐，出自大海西南角。
Burma, Music of Burma, they came from the Great Sea at its southwest horn.
雍羌之子舒难陀，来献南音奉正朔。
雍羌之子舒难陀，来献南音奉正朔。
A son of the peaceful Qiang tribe, Shu Nantuo
Came offering his southern music to celebrate the New Year.
德宗立仗御紫庭，黈纩不塞为尔听。
德宗立仗御紫庭，黈纩不塞为尔听。
Dezong prepared the ceremony in the royal purple garden,
Not wearing his yellow ball tassels he listened.
玉螺一吹椎髻耸，铜鼓一击文身踊。
玉螺一吹椎髻耸，铜鼓一击文身踊。
Sounding their conch shells they wore towering chignon braids,
A thousand beats of the copper drum tattooed dancers leapt.
珠缨炫转星宿摇，花鬘斗薮龙蛇动。
珠缨炫转星宿摇，花鬘斗薮龙蛇动。
Their pearl tassels dazzling, they spun and shook as constellations,
Like flowers shaking, and snakes and dragons moving.
曲终王子启圣人，臣父愿为唐外臣。
曲终王子启圣人，臣父愿为唐外臣。
When the song ended the prince of Burma spoke to the King.
He said that his father wished to become a vassal of the Tang.
左右欢呼何翕习，至尊德广之所及。
左右欢呼何翕习，至尊德广之所及。
The ministers at his left and right cheered,
All saying that this shows how far the emperor’s virtue and influence have extended.
须臾百辟诣阁门，俯伏拜表贺至尊。
须臾百辟诣阁门，俯伏拜表贺至尊。
In a moment all the hundred officials came to the gate of the palace,
Prostrating to the King they presented memorials congratulating the supreme monarch.
伏见骠人献新乐，请书国史传子孙。
伏见骠人献新乐，请书国史传子孙。
"Having respectfully watched the musicians of Burma offering the new music,
We hereby request that the court historian record it and pass it down to sons and grandsons."
时有击壤老农父，暗测君心闲独语。
时有击壤老农父，暗测君心闲独语。
At the time there was an old farmer,
Who secretly conjectured about the King’s mind and in a leisurely manner said to himself:
闻君政化甚圣明，欲感人心致太平。
闻君政化甚圣明，欲感人心致太平。
"I have heard that in state affairs you rule with august wisdom,
You wish to move people's hearts to achieve peace."
感人在近不在远，太平由实非由声。
感人在近不在远，太平由实非由声。
"Moving people's hearts is achieved when they are close, not when they are far.
Peace is about results and not reputation."
观身理国国可济，君如心兮民如体。
"Observing oneself and ruling a nation is one and the same.
You are the heart of the nation and the people are the body."
体生疾苦心憯凄，民得和平君恺悌。
体生疾苦心憯凄，民得和平君恺悌。
"When the body is sick and in pain the heart is inconsolable.
So when the people are at peace, so is our lord happy and harmonious."
贞元之民若未安，骠乐虽闻君不叹。
"If the people of Zhenyuan are not yet at peace,
Then even if listening to the music of Burma you will not enjoy."
贞元之民苟无病，骠乐不来君亦圣。
贞元之民苟无病，骠乐不来君亦圣。
"If the people of Zhenyuan are without ailment,
Then the music of Burma would not have come and you our lord would still be considered a sage."
骠乐骠乐徒喧喧，不如闻此刍荛言。
骠乐骠乐徒喧喧，不如闻此刍荛言。
Music of Burma oh music of Burma, such noise,
Its sound was not as good as this woodcutter's words.
Jordan Alexander Gwyther explains this poem as follows:
The nineteenth poem is "Piao guo yue" 骠国乐 and is translated as The Musicians of Burma. The poem is about the emperor enraptured while watching the Burmese musicians perform for his court. [ ... ] The nineteenth poem is The Musicians of Burma. This poem speaks of visitors from abroad coming in tribute, offering their music to Emperor Dezong of Tang. As we shall soon learn this music is offered as a celebration of the New Year. This piece is truly a beautiful scene. Bai Juyi's description is so complete that the entire scene comes alive in our imaginations. Even godly dragons come alive alongside the music, swaying about amongst pearl tassels.
Placating Emperor Dezong, the Musicians of Burma have made a successful trip to visit the kingdom of the Tang. Not only have they impressed the Emperor himself, the ministers too are enraptured by this beautiful foreign music. Later in the poem Bai Juyi introduces another character to offer a different opinion. This proverbial farmer is nameless, but only because he represents the voice of Bai Juyi within the poem itself. For the remainder of the poem our "farmer" explains how diplomacy should work to the Emperor himself.
As the old farmer explains the Emperor is the heart of the nation. When his ideas are sickened, so too does the "body" suffer. The happiness of the Emperor is dependent on the health of the people of the kingdom. If the people are with ailment there is no way for the Emperor to enjoy the fruits of diplomacy.
* * * * * * * * *
《和李校书新题乐府十二首·骠国乐》
(Piaoguo Yue)
作者：元稹（唐）
by Yuan Zhen (mid-Tang Dynasty, 779-831)
骠之乐器头象驼，音声不合十二和。
促舞跳趫筋节硬，繁辞变乱名字讹。
千弹万唱皆咽咽，左旋右转空傞傞。
俯地呼天终不会，曲成调变当如何。
德宗深意在柔远，笙镛不御停娇娥。
史馆书为朝贡传，太常编入鞮靺科。
古时陶尧作天子，逊遁亲听康衢歌。
又遣遒人持木铎，遍采讴谣天下过。
万人有意皆洞达，四岳不敢施烦苛。
尽令区中击壤块，燕及海外覃恩波。
秦霸周衰古官废，下堙上塞王道颇。
共矜异俗同声教，不念齐民方荐瘥。
传称鱼鳖亦咸若，苟能效此诚足多。
借如牛马未蒙泽，岂在抱瓮滋鼋鼍。
教化从来有源委，必将泳海先泳河。
是非倒置自古有，骠兮骠兮谁尔诃。
(Piaoguo Yue)
作者：元稹（唐）
by Yuan Zhen (mid-Tang Dynasty, 779-831)
骠之乐器头象驼，音声不合十二和。
促舞跳趫筋节硬，繁辞变乱名字讹。
千弹万唱皆咽咽，左旋右转空傞傞。
俯地呼天终不会，曲成调变当如何。
德宗深意在柔远，笙镛不御停娇娥。
史馆书为朝贡传，太常编入鞮靺科。
古时陶尧作天子，逊遁亲听康衢歌。
又遣遒人持木铎，遍采讴谣天下过。
万人有意皆洞达，四岳不敢施烦苛。
尽令区中击壤块，燕及海外覃恩波。
秦霸周衰古官废，下堙上塞王道颇。
共矜异俗同声教，不念齐民方荐瘥。
传称鱼鳖亦咸若，苟能效此诚足多。
借如牛马未蒙泽，岂在抱瓮滋鼋鼍。
教化从来有源委，必将泳海先泳河。
是非倒置自古有，骠兮骠兮谁尔诃。
---------------------------------------------
Glossary
● 骠国 = Piaoguo, the Chinese name for the kingdom of Pyu, a state in the valley of the Irrawaddy River in modern-day Burma, which flourished between the 3rd and the 9th centuries AD.
Bibliography
---------------------------------------------● Hill, Nathan W. "Songs of the Bailang: A New Transcription with Etymological Commentary." Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient, vol. 103 (2017), pp. 345-389.
https://www.academia.edu/36854255/Songs_of_the_Bailang_A_New_Transcription_with_Etymological_Commentary
● Picken, Laurence. "Instruments in an Orchestra from Pyū (Upper Burma) in 802." Musica Asiatica, vol. 4 (1984), pp. 245-270.
● Picken, Laurence. "Instruments in an Orchestra from Pyū (Upper Burma) in 802." Musica Asiatica, vol. 4 (1984), pp. 245-270.
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Thanks to Patrick Huang for assistance with this page.
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